The question of usage in formal writing is often associated with avoiding mistakes–especially, embarrassing mix-ups between close synonyms. More positively, attention to usage represents an opportunity to carefully select the best possible language for expressing technical ideas. It would certainly be possible to simply turn this post into a list of commonly misused words and phrases, but the question of usage arises in a variety of different contexts. Thus, it might be more useful to describe those categories and to supply a few tips for actually choosing apt language rather than simply avoiding mistakes.
Spelling and Usage
The simplest category of errors when it comes to usage has to do with spelling. These usually occur when a word has a close homophone or when common spelling mistakes get amplified (usually online). One of the most common examples of this is the past tense of the verb “to lead.” Although the correct spelling is “led,” it is not uncommon to see “lead” in its place. This is an easy mistake to make, and most spell-checking software will not catch this and similar mistakes. When in doubt while writing, however, remember the following:
Tip: Shifts in tense in English verbs often come with changes in spelling.
Grammatical Niceties
The second category of usage pertains to words that are governed by specific grammatical rules in English. In most of these cases, the author must choose when best to use a given word, based on the context. The few examples discussed below are chosen based on common errors in manuscripts. Some of them are not errors, so much as recommendations for heightening style.
Among or between
These words share an extremely similar meaning, connecting two or more individuals or groups of people. Generally speaking, “among” is the better choice when describing a group of more than two individuals or objects: “The candidate’s educational background was one among many reasons for hiring him.” The exception to this is when there are multiple individuals in a group, but the sentence gives equal weight to each one of them: “The apple was divided equally between the three children.”
Tip: When in doubt whether to use “among” or “between” in a sentence, try substituting the word “of” into the sentence. If it makes sense to use “of,” then “among” is probably the better choice.
However
This is one of the most useful transitional words in a writer’s arsenal, but it is a good idea to avoid using it at the beginning of a sentence where possible, especially when it is used synonymously with “nevertheless.” This rule is partly indicated by the punctuation rules surrounding the usage of “however.” When “however” does occur in the first position of a clause, it is usually after a semicolon–itself a weaker version of a period. While there is no hard and fast rule against using “however” to begin a sentence, its weakness in that position often renders the writing slightly clunky.
Tip: Consider beginning a sentence with “nevertheless” instead of “however,” or placing “however” after the first major clause of the sentence in order to indicate contrast.
That or which
These two are tricky because there has always been slippage between these two pronouns. This includes the King James Bible, one of the key texts in the development of modern English usage. Strunk and White quote part of Luke 2:15 in The Elements of Style as an example of this sloppy usage, but (amusingly) leave out the second and contrasting use of “which” later in the sentence: “…the shepherds said one to another, Let us now go even unto Bethlehem, and see this thing which is come to pass, which the Lord hath made known unto us.” What exactly is the difference between these two pronouns?
Simply put, “that” is a definite pronoun, indicating a specific person, place, object, or defining characteristic. “Pass me the envelope that has the stamp on it.” Or, in the biblical quotation above, “…this thing that has come to pass…” would be a slightly more standard formulation. On the other hand, “which” is nondefinite and nonrestrictive–it can (and often does) refer back to something already specifically mentioned, but it could include other people, places, or things. It often adds extra information that is interesting or useful, but not an essential characteristic of the thing described. “The stamped envelope, which is ready to go into the mail, is on the table.”
Tip: When describing an object based on a specific, primary characteristic, “that” is often the better choice. When adding extra information, “which” may be the better option.
Choosing Synonyms
The final and most interesting category when it comes to usage is the choice of good synonyms. In formal writing in particular, well-chosen synonyms increase the power of the text by breaking up excessive repetition. They can, however, introduce confusion if chosen with less care..
Is a synonym necessary?
Not every single term needs a synonym, and running to the thesaurus just for the sake of breaking up the text may actually be counterproductive. The goal of all writing is (or should be) clear prose, built on the foundation of well-established and clearly defined terms. When presenting technical research in particular, some repetition will happen simply as a side effect of using precise terminology. Before deciding whether synonyms are necessary, it is best to decide on 5-6 key terms, whose meaning and usage cannot be compromised. Most of these will appear either in the Abstract or in the list of search phrases just below the Abstract. In longer manuscripts, many of these terms will receive specific attention and definition in the Introduction. In most cases, these terms should speak for themselves throughout the manuscript in order to avoid confusion.
Tip: Let critical conceptual terms stand on their own without introducing extra synonyms.
Selecting synonyms
Secondary terms are often a good place to look to use synonyms, as they occur frequently throughout the text, but do not need to remain quite as consistent all the way to the Conclusion. As a general rule, however, try to select synonyms with easily understood meanings. These words are secondary, and the last thing any author will want is to have a reader’s attention distracted from the major theoretical concepts by puzzling over an obscure turn of phrase. For instance, it is correct that the word “increment” does mean “increase.” The second part of the definition, however, is key to its ordinary usage: “…especially one of a series on a fixed scale.” Using “increment” as a simple replacement for “increase” (without any specification of a scale) is likely to cause confusion.
Tip: Choose synonyms with readily understood, common meanings.
Finally, try to choose verbs to substitute for other verbs, and nouns for other nouns. While it is not impossible to use a noun as a synonym for a verb (and vice versa), this can cause confusion. It is not incorrect to use “fishing” and “fishery” as synonyms–“fishery” actually does reference the harvesting as well as the raising of fish. At the same time, an easy way to improve the clarity of a text would be to separate the usage of these terms so that “fishing” clearly specifies the action of catching fish, while “fishery” indicates the places where that activity takes place.
Tip: Keep places, objects, and people clearly separate from actions.
Final Thoughts
This is an extremely brief overview of some of the ways in which good usage improves and elevates formal writing. The few examples surveyed here are by no means an exhaustive list of commonly misused words. Many such lists are available elsewhere on other sites dedicated to writing. While some of the instances referenced in this post do represent common errors, good usage goes beyond avoiding mistakes to improving style and clarity. And those are the goals of any author.